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Self Consistency A Theory Of Personality Pdf Free Download

Theories of Personality

By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated

Summary
  • Personality tests date all the mode back to the 18th century, when phrenology, measuring bumps on the skull, and physiognomy, analyzing a person's outer appearance, were used to appraise personality (Goldstein & Hershen, 2000).
  • Beginning in the late 19th century, Sir Francis Galton, a British polymath (an proficient in many fields) estimated the number of adjectives in the English dictionary that described personality. The list was eventually refined past Louis Leon Thurstone to 60 words, and through analyzing roughly 1,300 participants, the list was reduced again to 7 mutual factors (Goldberg, 1993).
  • Similarly, British-American psychologist Raymond Cattell developed a Xvi Personality Factor Questionnaire, a 185 multiple-choice self-written report questionnaire used to measure personality in both the clinical and non-clinical settings.
  • In the 1980s, after an almost iv decade long hiatus, Lewis Goldberg and colleagues (1980) revived Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal's (1961) exploration of five major personality traits. Their work washed in the 80s extended Tupes and Christal's work by redefining the 5 central factors as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, conjuration, and neuroticism (commonly abbreviated equally the acronym Sea). This new model greatly contributed to the broad acceptance and increase in popularity the 5-cistron model received.

What is this thing we phone call personality? Consider the following definitions, what practise they take in mutual?

"Personality is the dynamic arrangement within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics beliefs and thought" (Allport, 1961, p. 28).

"The characteristics or blend of characteristics that brand a person unique" (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

Both definitions emphasize the uniqueness of the individual and consequently adopt an idiographic view.

The idiographic view assumes that each person has a unique psychological structure and that some traits are possessed past just i person; and that there are times when it is impossible to compare 1 person with others. It tends to use case studies for information gathering.

The nomothetic view, on the other manus, emphasizes comparability among individuals. This viewpoint sees traits as having the same psychological significant in everyone.

This approach tends to utilise self-report personality questions, factor analysis, etc. People differ in their positions along a continuum in the same set of traits.

Nosotros must also consider the influence and interaction of nature (biology, genetics, etc.) and nurture (the environment, upbringing) with respect to personality development.

Trait theories of personality imply personality is biologically based, whereas state theories such as Bandura'south (1977) Social Learning Theory emphasize the role of nurture and environmental influence.

Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality assumes there is an interaction betwixt nature (innate instincts) and nurture (parental influences).

Freud's Theory

Personality involves several factors:

    – Instinctual drives – food, sex activity, aggression

    – Unconscious processes

    – Early childhood influences (re: psychosexual stages) – especially the parents

Personality evolution depends on the interplay of instinct and environment during the first 5 years of life.

Parental behavior is crucial to normal and abnormal development. Personality and mental wellness problems in adulthood can unremarkably be traced dorsum to the first v years.

Psychosexual Development

People – including children – are basically hedonistic – they are driven to seek pleasure past gratifying the Id'southward desires (Freud, 1920).

Sources of pleasure are determined by the location of the libido (life-force).

Equally a child moves through unlike developmental stages, the location of the libido, and hence sources of pleasure, change (Freud, 1905).

source of the libido

Environmental and parental experiences during babyhood influence an private'southward personality during adulthood.

For example, during the offset 2 years of life, the babe who is neglected (insufficiently fed) or who is over-protected (over-fed) might get an orally-fixated person (Freud, 1905).

psychosexual stages

Tripartite Theory of Personality

Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into 3 parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego (also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in our lives.

These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any fashion physical.

id ego and superego

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality, including the sex activity (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.

It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.

psychotic personality

The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external existent globe (like a referee). It is the controlling component of personality

The ego operates according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of satisfying the id's demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avert negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.

healthy psyche

The superego incorporates the values and morals of order which are learned from one's parents and others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt.

neurotic personality

Trait Arroyo to Personality

This arroyo assumes beliefs is determined by relatively stable traits which are the fundamental units of ane's personality.

Traits predispose one to human action in a certain fashion, regardless of the state of affairs. This means that traits should remain consequent across situations and over time, simply may vary between individuals. It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due to genetic differences.

These theories are sometimes referred to a psychometric theories, considering of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given a numeric score to indicate how much of a trait they possess.

Eysenck'southward Personality Theory

Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982) proposed a theory of personality based on biological factors, arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous organization that affects their ability to learn and adapt to the surroundings.

During 1940s Eysenck was working at the Maudsley psychiatric infirmary in London. His job was to make an initial cess of each patient before their mental disorder was diagnosed by a psychiatrist.

Through this position, he compiled a battery of questions about behavior, which he afterward applied to 700 soldiers who were beingness treated for neurotic disorders at the infirmary (Eysenck (1947).

He found that the soldiers' answers seemed to link naturally with one another, suggesting that there were a number of unlike personality traits which were being revealed by the soldier'southward answers. He chosen these first-order personality traits

He used a technique called cistron assay. This technique reduces behavior to a number of factors which tin exist grouped together nether separate headings, called dimensions.

Eysenck (1947) found that their behavior could exist represented by 2 dimensions: Introversion / Extroversion (Eastward); Neuroticism / Stability (North). Eysenck called these second-social club personality traits.

Each aspect of personality (extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) tin be traced dorsum to a different biological cause. Personality is dependent on the balance betwixt excitation and inhibition procedure of the autonomic nervous organisation (ANS).

Extraversion/introversion

Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can become bored easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic and impulsive. They are more probable to take risks and be thrill seekers. Eysenck argues that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous arrangement and and so seek stimulation to restore the level of optimum stimulation.

Introverts on the other hand lie at the other cease of this scale, being quiet and reserved. They are already over-aroused and shun sensation and stimulation. Introverts are reserved, plan their deportment and control their emotions. They tend to exist serious, reliable and pessimistic.

Neuroticism/stability

A person'south level of neuroticism is determined by the reactivity of their sympathetic nervous organisation. A stable person's nervous system will generally exist less reactive to stressful situations, remaining calm and level headed.

Someone high in neuroticism on the other hand will be much more unstable, and prone to overreacting to stimuli and may be quick to worry, anger or fright. They are overly emotional and notice it hard to calm downwardly in one case upset. Neurotic individuals have an ANS that responds rapidly to stress.

Psychoticism/normality

Eysenck (1966) later added a tertiary trait / dimension - Psychoticism – e.yard., defective in empathy, cruel, a loner, aggressive and troublesome. This has been related to high levels of testosterone. The higher the testosterone, the higher the level of psychoticism, with low levels related to more normal balanced beliefs.

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.

According to Eysenck, the two dimensions of neuroticism (stable vs. unstable) and introversion-extroversion combine to course a multifariousness of personality characteristics.

Eysenck traits theory of personality

Critical Evaluation

Twin studies tin can be used to see if personality is genetic. Even so, the findings are conflicting and non-conclusive.

Shields (1976) found that monozygotic (identical) twins were significantly more akin on the Introvert – Extrovert (E) and Psychoticism (P) dimensions than dizygotic (not-identical) twins.

Loehlin, Willerman, and Horn (1988) establish that just 50% of the variations of scores on personality dimensions are due to inherited traits. This suggests that social factors are also important.

I practiced element of Eysenck's theory is that information technology takes into account both nature and nurture. Eysenck's theory argues strongly that biological predispositions towards certain personality traits combined with workout and socialization during childhood in society to create our personality.

This interactionist approach may, therefore, be much more valid than either a biological or environmental theory solitary.

It also links nicely with the diathesis-stress model of beliefs which argues for a biological predisposition combining with an ecology trigger for a item behavior.

Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)

Cattell'due south 16PF Trait Theory

Cattell (1965) disagreed with Eysenck's view that personality can exist understood by looking at only ii or three dimensions of beliefs.

Instead, he argued that that is was necessary to expect at a much larger number of traits in order to get a complete pic of someone's personality.

Whereas Eysenck based his theory based on the responses of hospitalized servicemen, Cattell collected data from a range of people through three unlike sources of data.

  • L-data - this is life record data such every bit school grades, absenteeism from work, etc.
  • Q-data - this was a questionnaire designed to rate an individual's personality (known as the 16PF) .
  • T-information - this is data from objective tests designed to 'tap' into a personality construct.

Cattell analyzed the T-data and Q-information using a mathematical technique chosen factor assay to look at which types of beliefs tended to be grouped together in the same people. He identified 16 personality traits / factors common to all people.

Cattell made a distinction between source and surface traits. Surface traits are very obvious and tin exist easily identified by other people, whereas source traits are less visible to other people and appear to underlie several different aspects of behavior.

Cattell regarded source traits are more important in describing personality than surface traits.

Cattell's 16 personality traits

Cattell produced a personality test similar to the EPI that measured each of the xvi traits. The 16PF (16 Personality Factors Test) has 160 questions in total, 10 questions relating to each personality factor.

Allport'due south Trait Theory

Allport's theory of personality emphasizes the uniqueness of the private and the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior. For example, intelligence, temperament, habits, skills, attitudes, and traits.

Allport (1937) believes that personality is biologically determined at nascency, and shaped past a person's environmental experience.

Disciplinarian Personality

Adorno et al. (1950) proposed that prejudice is the result of an individual's personality type. They piloted and developed a questionnaire, which they called the F-calibration (F for fascism).

Adorno argued that deep-seated personality traits predisposed some individuals to be highly sensitive to totalitarian and antidemocratic ideas and therefore were prone to be highly prejudicial.

The evidence they gave to support this conclusion included:

    • Instance studies, due east.thou., Nazis

    • Psychometric testing (use of the F-calibration)

    • Clinical interviews revealed situational aspects of their babyhood, such equally the fact that they had been brought up past very strict parents or guardians, which were found of participants who scored highly on the F-scale non always found in the backgrounds of low scorers.

Those with an authoritarian personality tended to be:

• Hostile to those who are of inferior condition, but obedient to people with high status

• Fairly rigid in their opinions and behavior

• Conventional, upholding traditional values

Adorno ended that people with authoritarian personalities were more likely to categorize people into "us" and "them" groups, seeing their own group every bit superior.

Therefore, the study indicated that individuals with a very strict upbringing past disquisitional and harsh parents were near likely to develop an disciplinarian personality.

Adorno believed that this was because the individual in question was not able to limited hostility towards their parents (for beingness strict and critical).  Consequently, the person would then displace this aggression / hostility onto safer targets, namely those who are weaker, such every bit ethnic minorities.

Adorno et al. felt that authoritarian traits, equally identified past the F-Calibration, predispose some individuals towards 'fascistic' characteristics such as:

    • Ethnocentrism, i.e., the trend to favor one's own ethnic grouping:

    • Obsession with rank and condition

    • Respect for and submissiveness to authority figures

    • Preoccupation with power and toughness.

In other words, according to Adorno, the Eichmanns of this globe are there because they have authoritarian personalities and therefore are predisposed cruelty, equally a result of their upbringing.

There is evidence that the disciplinarian personality exists. This might help to explicate why some people are more resistant to changing their prejudiced views.

Critical Evaluation

There are many weaknesses in Adorno's caption of prejudice:

• Harsh parenting style does not ever produce prejudice children / individuals

• Some prejudiced people do non conform to the authoritarian personality type.

• Information technology doesn't explicate why people are prejudiced confronting certain groups and non others.

Furthermore, the authoritarian explanation of prejudice does non explain how whole social groups (due east.yard., the Nazis) tin can be prejudiced. This would hateful that all members of a grouping (e.g., Nazis) would have an authoritarian personality, which is quite unlikely.

Cultural or social norms would seem to offer a better explanation of prejudice and conflict than personality variables. Adorno has also been criticized for his express sample.

Also, Hyman and Sheatsley (1954) constitute that lower educational level was probably a ameliorate caption of loftier F-scale scores than an authoritarian.

How to reference this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2017). Theories of personality. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/personality-theories.html

APA Style References

Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper and Row (pp. 228).

Allport, One thousand. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: H. Holt and. Company.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cattell, R. B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore: Penguin Books.

Eysenck, H. J. (1952). The scientific study of personality.

Eysenck, H. J. (1966). Personality and experimental psychology. Bulletin of the British Psychological Order.

Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality (Vol. 689). Transaction publishers.

Eysenck, H. J. (1982). Personality, genetics, and behavior: Selected papers.

Freud, South. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Se, vii.

Freud, Southward. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.

Freud, South. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19: one-66.

Goldberg, L. R. (1980). Some ruminations about the structure of individual differences: Developing a common dictionary for the major characteristics of homo personality. In Invited paper, convention of the western psychological association, honolulu, hawaii.

Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The construction of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48(i), 26.

Goldstein, G., & Hersen, M. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of psychological assessment. Elsevier.

Hyman, H. H., & Sheatsley, P. (1956). Attitudes Toward Desegregation. Scientific American, 195:35-39.

Loehlin, J. C., Willerman, L., & Horn, J. M. (1988). Man behavior genetics. Almanac Review of Psychology, 39(1), 101-133.

Pervin, 50. A. (1993). Personality: Theory and research. John Wiley & Sons.

Shields, J. (1976). Heredity and environs. In A textbook of human psychology (pp. 145-160). Springer Netherlands.

Weinberg, R. Southward., & Gould, D. (1999). Personality and sport. Foundations of Sport and Do Psychology, 25-46.

How to reference this article:

McLeod, Southward. A. (2017). Theories of personality. Only Psychology. world wide web.simplypsychology.org/personality-theories.html

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